Recall vs. Recognition: How the Strength of Sponsor Awareness Influences the Perceived Brand Personality
Journal of Economics, Management and Trade,
Page 47-59
DOI:
10.9734/jemt/2021/v27i1030372
Abstract
Aim: The aim of this paper is to investigate whether remembering a sponsor actively (recall) or passively (recognition) has an influence on the perceived brand image. Because brand personality is a psychological and multi-dimensional construct, it is worthwhile to investigate the influence of information retrieval from the long-term memory.
Study design: The study contains two independent samples. On the one hand spectators were interviewed at different sports events that were sponsored by the same brand (field sample). Additionally, a representative sample of the population was drawn and questioned about the same brand outside the environment of sports events (online sample).
Place and Duration of Study: Both samples were collected in the federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate in Germany within a period of four months.
Methodology: In total, 2761 questionnaires from spectators and 1000 questionnaires from representative online sample of the population in the same region were collected. Regression analyses were conducted to compare the influence of sponsor awareness on brand image with other drivers of image transfer found in literature.
Results: Both tests (recall and recognition) show a significant influence on brand image, but they defer in the extent and the addressed dimensions of brand personality. Logistic regressions show that a low sponsor awareness is sufficient to strengthen some general positive brand associations, whereas it requires a higher sponsor awareness to raise intended associations successfully.
Conclusion: The strength of sponsor awareness should be considered when selecting the test procedure (recall or recognition test) for measuring image outcomes – both in marketing research and sponsorship controlling. Depending on the type of objectives the sponsor wants to achieve, this can be crucial for a sponsor in strategic management.
Keywords:
- sponsorship
- sponsor awareness
- brand image
- brand personality
- marketing
- sports
How to Cite
Runkel, A., & Preuß, H. (2021). Recall vs. Recognition: How the Strength of Sponsor Awareness Influences the Perceived Brand Personality. Journal of Economics, Management and Trade, 27(10), 47-59. https://doi.org/10.9734/jemt/2021/v27i1030372
References
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IEG. What sponsors want & where dollars will go in 2018. 2018. Accessed 30 November 2021. Available:http://www.sponsorship.com/IEG/files/f3/f3cfac41-2983-49be-8df6-3546345e27de.pdf.
van Rijn M, Kristal S, Henseler J. Why do all good things come to an end? An inquiry into the discontinuation of sport sponsor–sponsee relationships. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 2019;20(2):224–241.
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Cornwell TB, Kwak DH. Sponsorship-Linked Marketing. Introduction to Topics. Journal of Sport Management. 2015;29(2):133–136.
Cornwell TB., Weeks CS, Roy DP. Sponsorship-Linked Marketing. Opening the Black Box. Journal of Advertising. 2005;34(2):21–42.
Walliser B. An international review of sponsorship research. Extension and update. International Journal of Advertising. 2003;22(1):5–40.
Cornwell TB., Weeks CS, Roy DP. Sponsorship-Linked Marketing. Opening the Black Box. Journal of Advertising. 2005;34(2):21–42.
Bruhn M. Sponsoring: Systematische Planung und integrativer Einsatz, 6th ed. Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden. 2018. German.
Grohs R, Reisinger H. Sponsorship effects on brand image. The role of exposure and activity involvement. Journal of Business Research. 2014;67(5):1018–1025.
Gwinner K. A model of image creation and image transfer in event sponsorship. International Marketing Review. 1997;4(3):145–158.
Gwinner K, Eaton J. Building Brand Image Through Event Sponsorship. The Role of Image Transfer. Journal of Advertising. 1999;28(4):47–57.
Grohs R, Reisinger H. Image transfer in sports sponsorships. An assessment of moderating effects. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 2005;7(1):36–42.
Meenaghan T. Understanding sponsorship effects. Psychology & Marketing. 2001;18(2):95–122.
Olson EL. Does sponsorship work in the same way in different sponsorship contexts?. European Journal of Marketing. 2010;44(1/2):180–199.
Wakefield KL, Becker-Olsen K, Cornwell TB. I Spy a Sponsor: The Effects of Sponsorship Level, Prominence, Relatedness, and Cueing on Recall Accuracy. Journal of Advertising. 2007;36(4):61–74.
Alexandris K, Tsaousi E, James J. Predicting sponsorship outcomes from attitudinal constructs. The case of a professional basketball event. Sport Marketing Quarterly. 2007;16(3):130-139.
Alonso-Dos-Santos M, Vveinhardt J, Calabuig-Moreno F, Montoro-Ríos F. Involvement and Image Transfer in Sports Sponsorship. Engineering Economics. 2016;27(1):78-89.
Tsiotsou R, Alexandris K. Delineating the outcomes of sponsorship. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management. 2009;37(4):358–369.
Quester PG, Thompson B. Advertising and Promotion Leverage on Arts Sponsorship Effectiveness. Journal of Advertising Research. 2001;41(1):33-47.
Grohs R, Reisinger H. Image transfer in sports sponsorships. An assessment of moderating effects. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 2005;7(1):36–42.
Grohs R, Reisinger H. Sponsorship effects on brand image. The role of exposure and activity involvement. Journal of Business Research. 2014;67(5):1018–1025.
Javalgi, RG, Traylor MB, Gross AC, Lampman E. Awareness of Sponsorship and Corporate Image. An Empirical Investigation. Journal of Advertising. 1994;23(4):47–58.
Aaker JL. Dimensions of Brand Personality. Journal of Marketing Research. 1997;34(3):347–356.
Bosnjak M, Bochmann V, Hufschmidt T. Dimensions of brand personality attributions: a person-centric aproach in the German cultural context. Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal. 2007;35(3):303–316.
Biscaia R, Correia A, Ross S, Rosado A. Sponsorship effectiveness in professional sport. An examination of recall and recognition among football fans. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 2014;16(1):2–18.
Lotto Rheinland-Pfalz. Geschäftsbericht 2019. 2020. Accessed 30 November 2021. German. Available:https://www.lotto-rlp.de/imperia/md/images/pfe-rlp/geschaeftsbericht_lotto_2019.pdf
State Office of Statistics Rhineland-Palatinate. Statistische Berichte. Bevölkerungsvorgänge 2018. 2020. Accessed 30 November 2021. German. Avalable:https://www.statistik.rlp.de/fileadmin/dokumente/berichte/A/1023/A1023_201800_1j_K.pdf.
Sassen M, Kraus L, Bühringer G, Pabst A, Piontek D, Taqi, Z. Gambling Among Adults in Germany: Prevalence, Disorder and Risk Factors. SUCHT. 2011;57(4): 249–257.
Stopher P. Collecting, Managing, and Assessing Data Using Sample Surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2018.
Dorofeev S, Grant P. Statistics for Real-Life Sample Surveys Non-Simple-Random Samples and Weighted Data. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2006.
Stopher P. Collecting, Managing, and Assessing Data Using Sample Surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2018.
Infratest Dimap. Umfragen & Analysen. Politische Stimmungen für Sie dokumentiert. 2021. Accessed 15 December 2021. German. Available: https://www.infratest-dimap.de/umfragen-analysen/
Forschungsgruppe Wahlen. Methodik der Politbarometer-Untersuchungen. 2021. Accessed 15 December 2021. German. Available:https://www.forschungsgruppe.de/Rund_um_die_Meinungsforschung/Methodik_Politbarometer/
Keller KL. Conceptualizing, Measuring, and Managing Customer-Based Brand Equity. Journal of Marketing. 1993;57(1): 1-22.
Aaker JL. Dimensions of Brand Personality. Journal of Marketing Research. 1997;34(3):347–356.
Bosnjak M, Bochmann V, Hufschmidt T. Dimensions of brand personality attributions: a person-centric aproach in the German cultural context. Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal. 2007;35(3):303–316.
Aaker JL. Dimensions of Brand Personality. Journal of Marketing Research. 1997;34(3):347–356.
Meffert H. Markenmanagement identitätsorientierte Markenführung und praktische Umsetzung. 2nd ed. Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden. German; 2005.
Bennett R. Sports sponsorship, spectator recall and false consensus. European Journal of Marketing. 1999;33(3/4): 291–313.
Lardinoit T, Derbaix, C. Sponsorship and recall of sponsors. Psychology & Marketing. 2001;18(2):167–190.
Bennett R. Sports sponsorship, spectator recall and false consensus. European Journal of Marketing. 1999;33(3/4): 291–313.
Bagozzi RP, Silk AJ. Recall, Recognition, and the Measurement of Memory for Print Advertisements. Marketing Science. 1983;2(2):95–134.
Biscaia R, Correia A, Ross S, Rosado A. Sponsorship effectiveness in professional sport. An examination of recall and recognition among football fans. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 2014;16(1):2–18.
Bosnjak M, Bochmann V, Hufschmidt T. Dimensions of brand personality attributions: a person-centric aproach in the German cultural context. Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal. 2007;35(3):303–316.
Wills G, Tacon R, Addesa F. Uncertainty of outcome, team quality or star players? What drives TV audience demand for UEFA Champions League football?. European Sport Management Quarterly. 2020(3):1–19.
Javalgi, RG, Traylor MB, Gross AC, Lampman E. Awareness of Sponsorship and Corporate Image. An Empirical Investigation. Journal of Advertising. 1994;23(4):47–58.
Meenaghan T. Understanding sponsorship effects. Psychology & Marketing. 2001;18(2):95–122.
Carrillat FA, Lafferty BA, Harris EG. Investigating sponsorship effectiveness: Do less familiar brands have an advantage over more familiar brands in single and multiple sponsorship arrangements?. Journal of Brand Management. 2005; 13:50–64.
Grohs R, Reisinger H. Image transfer in sports sponsorships. An assessment of moderating effects. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 2005;7(1):36–42.
Alexandris K, Tsaousi E, James J. Predicting sponsorship outcomes from attitudinal constructs. The case of a professional basketball event. Sport Marketing Quarterly. 2007;16(3): 130-139.
Tsiotsou R, Alexandris K. Delineating the outcomes of sponsorship. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management. 2009;37(4):358–369.
Pham MT, Johar GV. Market prominence biases in sponsor identification: Processes and consequentiality. Psychology & Marketing. 2001;18(2):123–143.
Bennett R. Sports sponsorship, spectator recall and false consensus. European Journal of Marketing. 1999;33(3/4): 291–313.
Biscaia R, Correia A, Ross S, Rosado A, Maroco J. Sport Sponsorship: The Relationship Between Team Loyalty, Sponsorship Awareness, Attitude Toward the Sponsor, and Purchase Intentions. Journal of Sport Management. 2013; 27(4):288–302.
Wakefield KL, Bennett G. Affective intensity and sponsor identification. Journal of Advertising. 2010;39(3):99–111.
Pham MT, Johar GV. Market prominence biases in sponsor identification: Processes and consequentiality. Psychology & Marketing. 2001;18(2):123–143.
Gwinner K, Eaton J. Building Brand Image Through Event Sponsorship. The Role of Image Transfer. Journal of Advertising. 1999;28(4):47–57.
Biscaia R, Correia A, Ross S, Rosado A. Sponsorship effectiveness in professional sport. An examination of recall and recognition among football fans. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 2014;16(1):2–18.
Carrillat FA, d'Astous A, Bellavance F, Eid F. On being there. European Journal of Marketing. 2015;49(3/4):621–642.
Meenaghan T. Understanding sponsorship effects. Psychology & Marketing. 2001; 18(2):95–122.
IEG. What sponsors want & where dollars will go in 2018. 2018. Accessed 30 November 2021. Available:http://www.sponsorship.com/IEG/files/f3/f3cfac41-2983-49be-8df6-3546345e27de.pdf.
van Rijn M, Kristal S, Henseler J. Why do all good things come to an end? An inquiry into the discontinuation of sport sponsor–sponsee relationships. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 2019;20(2):224–241.
World Advertising Research Center. Global Ad Trends. Janurary 2020 - Sports Sponsorship Investment [SAMPLE]. 2020. Accessed 6 May 2020).
Available:1content.warc.com/rs/809-PJV-078/images/WARC_Global_Ad_Trends_Sports_Sponsorship_SAMPLE.pdf
Cornwell TB, Kwak DH. Sponsorship-Linked Marketing. Introduction to Topics. Journal of Sport Management. 2015;29(2):133–136.
Cornwell TB., Weeks CS, Roy DP. Sponsorship-Linked Marketing. Opening the Black Box. Journal of Advertising. 2005;34(2):21–42.
Walliser B. An international review of sponsorship research. Extension and update. International Journal of Advertising. 2003;22(1):5–40.
Cornwell TB., Weeks CS, Roy DP. Sponsorship-Linked Marketing. Opening the Black Box. Journal of Advertising. 2005;34(2):21–42.
Bruhn M. Sponsoring: Systematische Planung und integrativer Einsatz, 6th ed. Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden. 2018. German.
Grohs R, Reisinger H. Sponsorship effects on brand image. The role of exposure and activity involvement. Journal of Business Research. 2014;67(5):1018–1025.
Gwinner K. A model of image creation and image transfer in event sponsorship. International Marketing Review. 1997;4(3):145–158.
Gwinner K, Eaton J. Building Brand Image Through Event Sponsorship. The Role of Image Transfer. Journal of Advertising. 1999;28(4):47–57.
Grohs R, Reisinger H. Image transfer in sports sponsorships. An assessment of moderating effects. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 2005;7(1):36–42.
Meenaghan T. Understanding sponsorship effects. Psychology & Marketing. 2001;18(2):95–122.
Olson EL. Does sponsorship work in the same way in different sponsorship contexts?. European Journal of Marketing. 2010;44(1/2):180–199.
Wakefield KL, Becker-Olsen K, Cornwell TB. I Spy a Sponsor: The Effects of Sponsorship Level, Prominence, Relatedness, and Cueing on Recall Accuracy. Journal of Advertising. 2007;36(4):61–74.
Alexandris K, Tsaousi E, James J. Predicting sponsorship outcomes from attitudinal constructs. The case of a professional basketball event. Sport Marketing Quarterly. 2007;16(3):130-139.
Alonso-Dos-Santos M, Vveinhardt J, Calabuig-Moreno F, Montoro-Ríos F. Involvement and Image Transfer in Sports Sponsorship. Engineering Economics. 2016;27(1):78-89.
Tsiotsou R, Alexandris K. Delineating the outcomes of sponsorship. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management. 2009;37(4):358–369.
Quester PG, Thompson B. Advertising and Promotion Leverage on Arts Sponsorship Effectiveness. Journal of Advertising Research. 2001;41(1):33-47.
Grohs R, Reisinger H. Image transfer in sports sponsorships. An assessment of moderating effects. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 2005;7(1):36–42.
Grohs R, Reisinger H. Sponsorship effects on brand image. The role of exposure and activity involvement. Journal of Business Research. 2014;67(5):1018–1025.
Javalgi, RG, Traylor MB, Gross AC, Lampman E. Awareness of Sponsorship and Corporate Image. An Empirical Investigation. Journal of Advertising. 1994;23(4):47–58.
Aaker JL. Dimensions of Brand Personality. Journal of Marketing Research. 1997;34(3):347–356.
Bosnjak M, Bochmann V, Hufschmidt T. Dimensions of brand personality attributions: a person-centric aproach in the German cultural context. Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal. 2007;35(3):303–316.
Biscaia R, Correia A, Ross S, Rosado A. Sponsorship effectiveness in professional sport. An examination of recall and recognition among football fans. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 2014;16(1):2–18.
Lotto Rheinland-Pfalz. Geschäftsbericht 2019. 2020. Accessed 30 November 2021. German. Available:https://www.lotto-rlp.de/imperia/md/images/pfe-rlp/geschaeftsbericht_lotto_2019.pdf
State Office of Statistics Rhineland-Palatinate. Statistische Berichte. Bevölkerungsvorgänge 2018. 2020. Accessed 30 November 2021. German. Avalable:https://www.statistik.rlp.de/fileadmin/dokumente/berichte/A/1023/A1023_201800_1j_K.pdf.
Sassen M, Kraus L, Bühringer G, Pabst A, Piontek D, Taqi, Z. Gambling Among Adults in Germany: Prevalence, Disorder and Risk Factors. SUCHT. 2011;57(4): 249–257.
Stopher P. Collecting, Managing, and Assessing Data Using Sample Surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2018.
Dorofeev S, Grant P. Statistics for Real-Life Sample Surveys Non-Simple-Random Samples and Weighted Data. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2006.
Stopher P. Collecting, Managing, and Assessing Data Using Sample Surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2018.
Infratest Dimap. Umfragen & Analysen. Politische Stimmungen für Sie dokumentiert. 2021. Accessed 15 December 2021. German. Available: https://www.infratest-dimap.de/umfragen-analysen/
Forschungsgruppe Wahlen. Methodik der Politbarometer-Untersuchungen. 2021. Accessed 15 December 2021. German. Available:https://www.forschungsgruppe.de/Rund_um_die_Meinungsforschung/Methodik_Politbarometer/
Keller KL. Conceptualizing, Measuring, and Managing Customer-Based Brand Equity. Journal of Marketing. 1993;57(1): 1-22.
Aaker JL. Dimensions of Brand Personality. Journal of Marketing Research. 1997;34(3):347–356.
Bosnjak M, Bochmann V, Hufschmidt T. Dimensions of brand personality attributions: a person-centric aproach in the German cultural context. Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal. 2007;35(3):303–316.
Aaker JL. Dimensions of Brand Personality. Journal of Marketing Research. 1997;34(3):347–356.
Meffert H. Markenmanagement identitätsorientierte Markenführung und praktische Umsetzung. 2nd ed. Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden. German; 2005.
Bennett R. Sports sponsorship, spectator recall and false consensus. European Journal of Marketing. 1999;33(3/4): 291–313.
Lardinoit T, Derbaix, C. Sponsorship and recall of sponsors. Psychology & Marketing. 2001;18(2):167–190.
Bennett R. Sports sponsorship, spectator recall and false consensus. European Journal of Marketing. 1999;33(3/4): 291–313.
Bagozzi RP, Silk AJ. Recall, Recognition, and the Measurement of Memory for Print Advertisements. Marketing Science. 1983;2(2):95–134.
Biscaia R, Correia A, Ross S, Rosado A. Sponsorship effectiveness in professional sport. An examination of recall and recognition among football fans. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 2014;16(1):2–18.
Bosnjak M, Bochmann V, Hufschmidt T. Dimensions of brand personality attributions: a person-centric aproach in the German cultural context. Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal. 2007;35(3):303–316.
Wills G, Tacon R, Addesa F. Uncertainty of outcome, team quality or star players? What drives TV audience demand for UEFA Champions League football?. European Sport Management Quarterly. 2020(3):1–19.
Javalgi, RG, Traylor MB, Gross AC, Lampman E. Awareness of Sponsorship and Corporate Image. An Empirical Investigation. Journal of Advertising. 1994;23(4):47–58.
Meenaghan T. Understanding sponsorship effects. Psychology & Marketing. 2001;18(2):95–122.
Carrillat FA, Lafferty BA, Harris EG. Investigating sponsorship effectiveness: Do less familiar brands have an advantage over more familiar brands in single and multiple sponsorship arrangements?. Journal of Brand Management. 2005; 13:50–64.
Grohs R, Reisinger H. Image transfer in sports sponsorships. An assessment of moderating effects. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 2005;7(1):36–42.
Alexandris K, Tsaousi E, James J. Predicting sponsorship outcomes from attitudinal constructs. The case of a professional basketball event. Sport Marketing Quarterly. 2007;16(3): 130-139.
Tsiotsou R, Alexandris K. Delineating the outcomes of sponsorship. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management. 2009;37(4):358–369.
Pham MT, Johar GV. Market prominence biases in sponsor identification: Processes and consequentiality. Psychology & Marketing. 2001;18(2):123–143.
Bennett R. Sports sponsorship, spectator recall and false consensus. European Journal of Marketing. 1999;33(3/4): 291–313.
Biscaia R, Correia A, Ross S, Rosado A, Maroco J. Sport Sponsorship: The Relationship Between Team Loyalty, Sponsorship Awareness, Attitude Toward the Sponsor, and Purchase Intentions. Journal of Sport Management. 2013; 27(4):288–302.
Wakefield KL, Bennett G. Affective intensity and sponsor identification. Journal of Advertising. 2010;39(3):99–111.
Pham MT, Johar GV. Market prominence biases in sponsor identification: Processes and consequentiality. Psychology & Marketing. 2001;18(2):123–143.
Gwinner K, Eaton J. Building Brand Image Through Event Sponsorship. The Role of Image Transfer. Journal of Advertising. 1999;28(4):47–57.
Biscaia R, Correia A, Ross S, Rosado A. Sponsorship effectiveness in professional sport. An examination of recall and recognition among football fans. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 2014;16(1):2–18.
Carrillat FA, d'Astous A, Bellavance F, Eid F. On being there. European Journal of Marketing. 2015;49(3/4):621–642.
Meenaghan T. Understanding sponsorship effects. Psychology & Marketing. 2001; 18(2):95–122.
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